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How Is the Public Protected from Radiation?
How Is the Public Protected from Radiation?

 Government Responsibilities in Protecting the Public
 Government Controls on Exposure to Radiation
 Controlling Medical Exposure
 Controlling Exposure to Radon
 Controlling UV Radiation Exposure
 Controlling Occupational Exposures
 Monitoring Radiation Levels in the Environment
 Responsible Federal Agencies
 Federal, State, and Local Government Functions
 Other Roles in Managing Radiation

Figures and Tables

 Table 4: Dose Standards for Ionizing Radiation Exposure
 Figure 30: Major Pathways by Which Dispersed Radionuclides Can Affect Living Organisms
 Table 5: Major Federal Legislation on Radiation Protection

The U.S. government and state governments play important roles in ensuring that radiation is responsibly managed to protect the public and the environment from the risks of exposure to ionizing radiation. Other organizations, including local governments, Native American Tribes, and international bodies, share in this responsibility.

Each of us as individuals also plays a key role by learning about radiation and making our opinions known in writing or at public forums and meetings.

Each of us, as individuals, can also take reasonable precautions to limit our own exposure.

Government Responsibilities in Protecting the Public

The federal government's primary responsibilities in protecting the public include:

  • Educating the public on radiation and its benefits and risks
  • Regulating the storage, transportation, and disposal of radioactive waste
  • Controlling the sources and uses of radiation, and setting and enforcing protective standards
  • Conducting research to determine potential health effects and to find more effective ways to reduce radiation exposures
  • Providing guidance on appropriate precautions by individuals

The first two responsibilities above have been discussed in other sections. This section discusses appropriate precautions individuals can take against overexposure, governmental controls and standards for use of radiation, and government research responsibilities.

Controlling Risks of Exposure to Radiation: Federal and Individual Roles
The federal government regulates manmade and some naturally occurring radioactive materials by setting emissions, exposure, and cleanup standards. Allowable exposure levels are set to provide the appropriate level of protection for both workers and the public. (Table 4) The federal government began setting radiation standards in 1957. NRC and EPA have primary responsibility for radiation protection except at DOE facilities where DOE regulates its radiation-related activities.

Table 4: Dose Standards for Ionizing Radiation Exposure in the United States (expressed in terms of annual effective dose)
Population and Source of Radioactivity
Dose Limit (mrem/yr)
Occupational limit 5,000
General Public
Limit for any licensed facility (excluding medical) 100
Limit for nuclear power facility 25
Limit for waste repository (excluding Yucca Mountain) 15
NAS recommendation for Yucca Mountain 2-20
EPA recommended "action level" for indoor radon 800 (approx.)
Source: Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

In 1995 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Science Advisory Board (SAB), a panel of independent experts that advises EPA on the scientific aspects of its regulatory responsibilities, studied the current state of knowledge about radiation and provided EPA with guidance on how it should approach radiation issues for the next 30 years. The SAB report, Future Issues in Environmental Radiation, concluded that:

  • High priority governmental controls over sources and standards of radiation are already in place and undergoing continual refinement.
  • The greatest potential for further reduction in public exposure is through individual protective actions.

The SAB found that the greatest potential for reducing overall public exposure to controllable sources of radiation was not through more government regulation, but by individual action, primarily by avoiding unnecessary exposure to medical radiation and by reducing exposure to indoor radon.

Government Controls on Exposure to Radiation

Controlling Radiation in the Air
Radioactive materials can enter the atmosphere several ways:

  • By natural processes, such as the interaction of cosmic radiation with nitrogen to produce radioactive carbon-14
  • By human activities that generate radiation or enhance natural radiation
  • By wind or some other natural or human activity stirring up dust containing radioactive particles

Once airborne, particles can remain suspended in the air for a long time, or they can settle in water, on the soil, or on surfaces of plants, where they can enter the food chain. Rain or snow can also remove radioactive particles from the air. (Figure 30)
Figure 30. Major Pathways by Which Dispersed Radionuclides Can Affect Living Organisms
Source: U.S. Department of Energy

Under the Clean Air Act of 1970 and its amendments, EPA established standards to regulate the release to the air of manmade radiation by most governmental and industrial facilities.

  • EPA's National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for radionuclides require facilities to limit their radionuclide air emissions so that no member of the public is exposed to more than 10 millirem of radiation per year.
  • Facilities must submit annual reports documenting their emissions, and they may be subject to annual inspections.

Facilities regulated by NRC, such as nuclear power plants, hospitals, medical research facilities, research reactors, and uranium fuel cycle facilities, are subject to similar limits.

EPA is also responsible for taking steps to reduce indoor exposures from radon.

Controlling Radiation in Water
Radioactive materials can enter water in several ways:

  • By being deposited in surface water from the air
  • By entering ground water or surface water from the ground through erosion, seepage, or human activities such as mining

Some radioactive particles dissolve and move along with the water. Others are deposited in sediments or on soil or rocks.

Two federal laws govern the regulation of radiation in water.

The Safe Drinking Water Act

The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended by the Clean Water Act

  • This act prohibits the discharge of radioactive wastes or other pollutants into U.S. navigable waters without a permit. EPA and authorized states have the authority to issue permits in accordance with water quality standards.

The government also controls radiation in water by requiring low-level radioactive waste disposal facilities to be located away from floodplains. These facilities are also designed to divert water away from the waste, or collect and remove radionuclides from water that has come in contact with the waste. This precaution minimizes the amount of radioactive material released into water, keeping it out of the food chain and away from people.

Controlling Medical Exposures

Government Controls and Guidance
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other federal and state agencies regulate medical procedures that use radiation. Radiologists, health physicists, NRC, EPA, state agencies, the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, and other responsible parties are continually looking for ways to reduce risk while taking advantage of the benefits from medical uses of radiation.

Government agencies also issue guidance designed to reduce unnecessary use of radiation in diagnosis and treatment and to ensure that technicians, equipment, and techniques meet standards that minimize radiation exposure. Within these standards, however, patients and health care providers must decide when to use radiation on a case-by-case basis.

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) points out that the radiation doses involved in medical procedures have been decreasing over the past two decades as X-ray films and equipment have been improved. In addition, the ability to target radiation more precisely to one part of the body has resulted in less exposure to the rest of the body. In the NIH's view, with the development of better machines and the use of computers to plan treatment, the safety and effectiveness of radiotherapy has steadily improved.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, according to NIH, "the benefits of medical radiation far outweigh the risks associated with it." For example:

  • Diagnostic tests using radiation allow doctors to treat patients without using invasive and life-threatening procedures.
  • Radiation, surgery, and chemotherapy are the mainstays of cancer treatment and are used in combination, depending on the cancer.
  • Certain tumors can be treated successfully with radiotherapy alone.

"But," notes the NIH, "there is a tradeoff. In this sense, radiation is no different than any other diagnostic or therapeutic agent, except that we have more information than usual." For example, doctors try to avoid exposure of large parts of the body to radiation because this can cause serious side effects like cancer. About five percent of all secondary cancers — cancers that develop after treatment for the initial cancer — have been linked to radiotherapy.

Controlling Exposure to Radon

Government Guidance
EPA and the U.S. Surgeon General recommend testing all homes below the third floor for radon and taking steps to reduce indoor radon levels to below four picocuries per liter (pCi/L), the level above which EPA recommends that homeowners voluntarily take steps to reduce radon exposures. This level is cost and technology-based, meaning that it takes into account the limits of the technology currently available and affordable to address residential radon levels. There is currently no known safe level of exposure to radon decay products. Any level of exposure, no matter how small, may pose some increased risk of lung cancer. Testing your home is the only way to know if you and your family are at risk from radon in indoor air.

Controlling UV Radiation Exposure

Overexposure to the sun's ultraviolet (UV) rays threatens human health by causing:

Children are highly susceptible to harmful UV radiation. Just one or two blistering sunburns in childhood may double the risk of developing melanoma, a highly malignant form of skin cancer. An estimated 80 percent of lifetime sun exposure occurs before the age of 18.

Controlling Occupational Exposures

People who work at nuclear power plants or in laboratories where radioactive materials are used, wear thermoluminescent dosimeters (TLDs) and/or film badges on the job. These devices measure cumulative whole-body exposures to ensure the exposure is not above regulatory limits.

Radiation workers are also rigorously trained to handle radioactive materials safely, to protect themselves and the public from possible radiation hazards. The responsible authorities and government agencies, in order to determine the cause and help prevent recurrences, investigate accidents that result in even slight radiation exposure or the release of small amounts of radioactivity. If an investigation reveals carelessness or neglect, the government can impose heavy fines and even shut down the responsible facilities.

Monitoring Radiation Levels in the Environment

To keep track of levels of radioactivity in the air, water, and food chain, EPA operates a national network of monitoring stations. The Environmental Radiation Ambient Monitoring System samples air, precipitation, surface and drinking water, and milk to track any radioactivity that reaches the public through the different environmental and food pathways. The system processes about 2,000 samples per month and conducts 6,000 analyses of the data, which are published in the quarterly journal Environmental Radiation Data. These reports can also be viewed at http://www.epa.gov/narel.

Responsible Federal Agencies

The federal government's radiation management and protection programs are authorized by more than 20 laws enacted since 1946. Table 5 outlines the major laws federal agencies use to set standards and issue regulations for radiation protection.

Table 5: Major Federal Legislation on Radiation Protection
Law
Year Passed
Agencies
Description
The Atomic Energy
Act (AEA) 		1946,
amended in
1954		 NRC
EPA
DOE
  • Establishes roles and responsibilities for control of nuclear materials. NRC, DOE, and EPA manage use, possession, and disposal of regulated materials.
  • Charges EPA with setting generally applicable environmental standards to protect the environment from listed radioactive materials. EPA has issued standards for (a) environmental releases of radioactivity from nuclear fuel cycle facilities (nuclear power reactors and supporting facilities), (b) disposal of radioactive materials from uranium ore refining, and (c) the disposal of high-level and transuranic radioactive waste anywhere except Yucca Mountain.
The Clean Air
Act (CAA) 		1970,
amended in
1977 and 1990		 EPA
  • Establishes the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants to regulate air pollution from various sources.
  • Section 112 applies specifically to airborne emissions or releases of radionuclides (radioactive particles) into the environment and requires EPA to protect public health and the environment from these emissions. EPA developed standards that limit air emissions of radionuclides to the environment from various sources. EPA implements these standards across the country through its regional offices.
The Comprehensive
Environmental Response,
Compensation, and
Liability Act
(CERCLA), as amended
by the Superfund
Amendments and
Reauthorization Act
(SARA) 		1980,
amended in
1986		 EPA
  • CERCLA and SARA require that cleanup of hazardous substances be conducted in a manner protective of human health. EPA has established site-specific methods to implement the mission established by CERCLA as it relates to cleanup and remediation of radioactively contaminated sites
The Energy
Policy Act 		1992 EPA
NRC
NAS
  • Directs the NAS to develop scientific recommendations and EPA to issue public health and safety standards for the operation of the potential high-level nuclear waste repository at Yucca Mountain. NRC will implement EPA's standards for Yucca Mountain.
The Federal Water
Pollution Control Act,
as amended by
the Clean Water Act 		1972,
amended in
1977 and 1987		 EPA
  • Prohibits discharge of radioactive wastes or other pollutants into U.S. navigable waters without a permit. EPA and authorized states have authority to issue permits in accordance with national water quality standards.
The Hazardous Materials
Transportation Act		 1975 DOT
  • Authorizes the DOT to set standards for the transport of radioactive and other hazardous materials in interstate and foreign commerce.
The Indoor Radon
Abatement Act 		1988 EPA
  • Instructs EPA to reduce indoor exposures from radon.
The Low- Level
Radioactive Waste
Policy Act		 1980 States
  • Makes each state responsible for ensuring that adequate disposal capacity is available for commercial low-level nuclear waste generated within its borders. Encourages states to join compacts to develop needed disposal capacity.
The Nuclear Waste
Policy Act 		1974,
amended in
1996		 DOE